Chondroitin sulfate
Chondroitin sulfate, or chondroitin 4-sulfate and chondroitin 4- and 6-sulfate, belongs to a class of very large molecules called gycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are polysaccharides found in vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Several GAGs have been found in tissues and fluids of vertebrate animals. The known GAGS are chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, hyaluronic acid, heparin and heparan sulfate. Glycosaminoglycan provides a further substrate for the synthesis of the proteoglycans. The provision of the chondroitin in its salt (sulfate) form facilitates its delivery and uptake by the humans and animals in the production of connective tissue. In addition, the sulfate portion of chondroitin sulfate is available for use in catalyzing the conversion of glucosamine to GAGs. Fragments of GAGs, including chondroitin sulfate, may also be used to provide a substrate for synthesis of proteoglycans since the assembly of PG occurs in the extracellular space. Chondroitin sulfate is a linear polymer occurring in several isomers, named for location of the sulfate group. Chondroitin-4 sulfate is found in nasal and tracheal cartilages of bovines and porcines. It is also found in the bones, flesh, blood, skin, umbilical cord, and urine of these animals. Chondroitin-6 sulfate has been isolated from the skin, umbilical cord, and cardiac valves of these animals. Chondroitin-6 sulfate has the same composition, but slightly different physical properties from chondroitin-4 sulfate. Chondroitin sulfates A, B and C are the predominant forms found in mammals and may be involved in the modulation of various biological activities including cell differentiation, adhesion, enzymatic pathways and hormone interactions. Chondroitin sulfates contribute to keep the cartilage matrix's normal characteristics through the increase of the glucosaminoglycan pool used by the chondrocytes for proteoglycan synthesis, as well as slowing down the inflammatory process acting directly on the enzymes inhibiting the compliment cascade and by exhibiting anti-prostoglandin activity. Chondroitin sulfate is a major component of cartilage. Chondroitin sulfate is a long hydrophilic chain of repeating sugars. This glycosaminoglycan binds to proteoglycan molecules aiding in water and nutrient transportation within the articular cartilage. Chondroitin in its sulfate form includes galactosamine, a primary substrate of hylauronan and a disaccharide pathway for proteoglycan synthesis secondary to the hexosamine pathways utilized for glycosaminoglycan production. It stimulates the regeneration of damaged cartilage tissues. Additionally, it has a lubricating effect on joint cavities with a positive effect on synovial fluid viscosity. Proteoglycans (or mucopolysaccharides) form the ground substance of cartilage, bone and joint fluid. Proteoglycans are comprised of proteins linked to glycosaminoglycans. The building block GAG subunit of the proteoglycan in cartilage and bone is chondroitin sulfate. Chondroitin sulfate chains comprise the space formation of the cartilage matrix and integral parts of the proteoglycan molecule. Chondroitin stimulates the production of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, and collagen, which are the building blocks of healthy cartilage. Chondroitin sulfate also inhibits the secretion of degenerative enzymes by the chondrocytes within articular cartilage. Chondroitin Sulfates are non-toxic and work synergistically with glucosamine to hydrate and repair articular cartilage. Chondroitin sulfate also acts to inhibit the degradative enzymes that break down connective tissue. In so doing, chondroitin sulfate promotes the maintenance of healthy connective tissues. Glucosamine provides strength, flexibility, and elasticity to cartilage and connective tissue by stimulating the production of glycosaminoglycans. Glucosamine also decreases inflammation that can lead to joint destruction. Glucosamine is involved in the formation of nails, tendons, skin, eyes, bones, ligaments, and heart valves. More importantly, it contributes to the strength and integrity of joint structures. Connective tissue and cartilage naturally contain high concentrations of glucosamine. When sufficient levels of glucosamine are present, cartilage retains its ability to hold water and act as a shock absorber. When combined with glucosamine, which functions primarily as a building block for the synthesis of connective tissue, chondroitin sulfate works in concert with the glucosamine but works in a primarily different fashion. The ability of chondroitin sulfate to block degradation is an important function, and chondroitin sulfate is provided in the compositions of the present invention primarily for that reason. The chondroitin sulfate family includes seven sub-types designated unsulfated chondroitin sulfate, oversulfated chondroitin sulfate and chondroitin sulfates A E which vary in the number and position of their sulfate functional groups. Chondroitin sulfate A is present in cornea and cartilage. Chondroitin sulfate B (G-heparin) is found in tendon, aorta, skin and heart valves. Chondroitin C is found in cartilage, tendon and umbilical cord and similar tissues. Thus, an adequate supply of metabolic precursors or building blocks is paramount to replacement and repair of the constituents of skeletal joints, connective tissue and synovial fluid. Additionally, it is possible that ingestion of cartilage or connective tissue precursor building blocks such as chondroitin may elicit an oral tolerance effect, thus suppressing the degradation of connective tissue by an autoimmune response. Chondroitin sulfate is especially useful as a marker for bone disorders because it demonstrates extremely low within-subject and analytical variability, unlike other currently available biochemical markers.
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